Peer Helping Related Research

• 11000 Barnett, M. A. (1987). Reasons for not wanting help. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 149(1), 127-129.

  140 students, second graders through college undergraduates, were found to offer numerous reasons for not wanting assistance from someone else. Although developmental differences were found in the frequency with which each of the seven categories of reasons were used, there was a considerable similarity in the extent to which a majority of the categories were used by the various age groups. (Authors/RKY).

• 11001 Lirgg, C. D., & Feltz, D. L. (1990). Teacher versus peer models revisited: Effects on motor performance and self-efficacy. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62(2), 217-224.

  The influence of skilled and unskilled teacher and peer models on motor performance were investigated. Results showed that subjects who watched a skilled model performed better than subjects who watched an unskilled model. There was no effect as a result of whether the model was a peer or a teacher.

• 11002 Strouse, J. H. (1990). Effective AIDS policies for schools. Student Assistance Journal, 34-38.

  Addressed to Student Assistant program (SAP) professionals, this article details the need and components of effective AIDS policies for schools. Such a policy would include all of the following elements: specificity, support for the infected individual, an individualized approach to educational placement, a procedure for educational placement, a procedure for protecting the infected student's identity, a procedure for release of information, an AIDS education plan and a procedure for dealing with body- fluid spills. (Author/NPC).

• 11003 Johnson, P. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1985). Learning together and alone: Cooperation, competition, and Individualization. Minneapolis, MN: Cooperative Learning Centre (202 Pattee Hall, 150 Pillsbury Drive S.C. 55455).

  This set of training resources is suitable for training teachers to implement a cooperative education approach in the classroom. Peers are involved in facilitating the cooperative education process.

• 11004 Pombeni, M. L., Kirchler, E., & Palmonari, A. (1990). Identification with peers as a strategy to muddle through the troubles of the adolescent years. Journal of Adolescence, 13, 351-369.

  This study was designed to explore critical events during adolescence and coping processes as dependent, first, on the relationship with peers, and second, on the type of peer-groups teenagers join. In all, 75 young people, members of four street groups and two religious groups, were given a questionnaire assessing identification with their peers and demographic characteristics, and then interviewed about critical events. The results show that the nature of the group individuals join is of minor importance, whereas the relationship established with peers is crucial: highly identified subjects not only more often join their peers but seem to derive more profit from interactions with people in general, both peers, friends, and parents. The peer-group is important, not to substitute for contacts with the family or other persons, but as a social entity to fill a vacuum during adolescent years. (Authors).

• 11005 Wodarski, J. S., Petzel, T. P., Johnson, J. E., & Bresolin, L. (1990). Adolescent substance abuse: Practical implications. Adolescence, 25(99), 667-688.

  The incidence of substance abuse and implications for practice are reviewed. Variables that might be altered to prevent abuse among clients are discussed. Substance abuse theory, school and peer environment, family, the media, community movements, and business and industry are explored in regard to prevention and treatment. (Author).

• 11006 Petzel, T. P., Johnson, J. E., & Bresolin, L. (1990). Peer nominations for leadership and likability in problem-solving groups as a function of gender and task. The Journal of Social Psychology, 130(5), 641-648.

  The relation of situational variables and gender to leadership selection and likability ratings was examined. Six mixed-gender groups of American students were given either an impersonal or personal task. There were measurements of frequency of speaking, leadership nominations, and likability ratings by group members. No significant differences in task performance associated with gender were found, but, consistent with traditional sex roles, in impersonal groups male students spoke more and were selected as leaders and most important contributors more frequently than were female students. The reverse was found for personal groups, in which women spoke more, were chosen as leaders more often, and received higher contribution rankings. Likability ratings were not as strongly determined by context: Female students were selected more frequently as most likable in both groups. (Authors).

• 11007 Bryant, B. K. (1987). Children's peer relationships: Integration badly needed. Contemporary Psychology, 32(1), 29-30.

  Article reviews two books on children's peer relationships, Process and Outcome in Peer Relationships, edited by Mueller, E. C., and Cooper, C. R. (1986) and Children's Peer Relations: Issues in Assessment and Intervention, edited by Schneider, B. H. et al. (1985). The two books together contain readings by 45 authors, and although both are centrally focused on the importance of peer relations to children's development, the author states that there is little overlap in the content presented. While Process and Outcome in Peer Relationships focuses more on general development or age related phenomenon among peers, Children's Peer Relations: Issues in Assessment and Intervention focuses on individual differences. (Author/NPC).

• 11008 Berndt, T. J. & Ladd, G. W. (Eds). (1989). Peer Relationships in Child Development. New York: Wiley and Sons.

  Considers the evidence for how children's relationships with their peers influences their development. Implications for clinicians, teachers, and psychologists relative to the use of peers as helpers are pointed out.

• 11009 Benard, B. (1986). Characteristics of effective prevention programs. Prevention Forum, 3-8.

  Some of the characteristics identified by research as contributing to effective prevention programming are reviewed. These characteristics are divided into three broad categories: program comprehensiveness/intensity, program strategies, program planning. (CS).

• 11010 Lowenstein, L. F. The peer group promoting socialised behaviour. Education Today, 39(2), 27-34.

  Describes how the peer group can be used to counteract and remedy negative behaviour in young people.

• 11011 Friedman, L. S., Lichtenstein, E., & Biglan, A. (1985). Smoking onset among teens: An empirical analysis of initial situations. Addictive Behaviors, 10(1), 1-13.

  This study attempted to identify factors associated with smoking onset among teens. It was hypothesized that initial cigarette smoking is largely prompted by peers, and that these prompts and subsequent social reinforcement may account for smoking participation. Analysis confirmed that prompting by peers is characteristic of a large majority of smoking onset situations. Nonsmokers appeared to possess more effective response strategies to refuse cigarettes. Implications of these data for prevention program design are discussed.

• 11012 Vitaro, F., Gagnon, C., & Tremblay, R. E. (1990). Predicting stable peer rejection from kindergarten to grade one. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19(3), 257- 264.

  Compared the social behaviour of stable and unstable rejected children from kindergarten (T1) to grade one (T2) on the basis of data provided by peers and teachers. A secondary goal was to distinguish the stable rejected subjects based on the behaviour and sociometric data available in kindergarten. Three-hundred children (168 boys; 132 girls) participated in the study at both time periods. Results indicated that children with a stable rejected status were less prosocial at T1 but not more aggressive or disruptive than their classmates whose rejected status was transitory. Lack of pro-sociality best predicted their belonging to the same status category at T2. Inclusion of behaviour correlates when predicting stable rejection was stressed.

• 11013 Smith, D. M. (1985). Perceived peer and parental influences on youth's social world. Youth and Society, 17(2), 131-156.

  The author reports evidence of the perceived influence of parents and peers on certain aspects of the social world of youth. The growing independence from parental influence is not replaced by reliance on peers but rather by a tendency to see oneself as making independent decisions. (CS/Author).

• 11014 Burnard, P. (1991). The language of experiential learning. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 16, 873-879.

  Experiential learning has been advocated as a means of helping students to learn about aspects of nursing. This paper reports an analysis of two language styles identified during a research project that explored nurse tutors' and students' perceptions of experiential learning. Twelve nurse tutors and 12 student nurses were interviewed and the transcripts were analyzed using a modified grounded theory approach. The aspect of the findings reported here is that of the emergence of two "language styles" used by some of the writers and practitioners in the field of experiential learning. It is suggested that those language styles may form a "culture isogloss" or barrier between tutors and students. (Author).

• 11015 Medway, F. J., & Updyke, J. F. (1985). Meta-analysis of consultation outcome studies. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13(5), 489- 505.

  The results of 54 controlled studies of psychological consultation using mental health, behavioral, and organization development models were synthesized using meta- analysis. The results supported the continued use of consultation as an effective practice in modifying consultee and, to a lesser extent, client behavior and attitudes. On the average, consultees showed improvements greater than 71% and clients showed improvements greater than 66% of untreated comparable groups. No differences were found in terms of effectiveness among the three models. (Authors).

• 11016 Hiebert, B. (1988). Controlling stress: A conceptual update. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 22(1), 226-241.

  This paper presents an update of an earlier framework for controlling stress. A contemporary interactional conceptualization of stress is presented and some inadequacies of earlier perspectives are outlined. This is followed by a model for stress control that includes controlling stress by acquiring better skills for dealing with environmental demands. The author discusses the importance of peers and social support in stress control. (Author/CS).

• 11017 Opotow, S. (1991). Adolescent peer conflicts: Implications for students and for schools. Education and Urban Society, 23(4), 416-441.

  Challenges the stereotype that adolescent peer conflicts are senseless, wasteful, and destructive. Proposes that conflicts raise important micropolitical concerns-power, conflict, coalitions, and policy-within the adolescent peer group and between adolescents and school adults. Asserts that adolescents' peer conflicts can increase relevance of education, play an important role in social development, and affect adolescent's future well-being. Suggests ways for constructive management of conflict including empowering students through skill building. (Author)

• 11018 King, A.J.C. & Coles, B. (1992). The health of Canada's youth. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services.

  This comprehensive study provides significant information on the use of tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs, exercise, leisure-time activities, nutrition, diet, dental care, physical ailments and medication, social adjustment, and relationships between health risk factors. Many of the statistics support the need for peer helpers. For example, Canadian youth were more likely than youth from several other countries to use their friends to discuss issues that really concern them; and as they grew older were least likely to discuss such things with their parents. (RAC)

• 11019 Benard, B. (1992). Peer programs: A major strategy for fostering resiliency in kids. Peer Facilitator Quarterly, 9(3), 14-17.

  Provides a brief history of risk research and explains the foundations for a transaction or ecological approach. Rather than "fixing" kids, programs can create positive environmental contexts where social competence, problem-solving skills, and a sense of purpose and future can be developed. The author outlines the patterns supporting resilient children, including caring and support, high expectations and opportunities for participation and involvement. (RAC)

• 11020 Cassidy, J. & Asher, S.R. (1992). Loneliness and peer relations in young children. Child Development, 63, 350-365.

  The authors found that children as young as kindergarten and first grade understood loneliness, that loneliness could be reliably assessed in young children, and that poorly accepted children were more lonely than other children. In addition, children who reported the most loneliness were found to differ from other children on several behavioral dimensions. (Authors)

• 11021 Stacy, A.W., Sussman, S. Dent, C.W., Burton, D., & Flay, B.R. (1992). Moderators of peer social influence in adolescent smoking. Personality and Social Psychology, 18(2), 163-172.

  The authors examined the impact of peer smoking and peer approval on adolescent smoking. Self-efficacy, or how teens thought about their ability to resist pressure to smoke played a more significant role than self-esteem, perceived stress, parental supervision after school or gender. Strong self-efficacy acts as a buffer against potentially harmful social influences. The authors suggest that prevention programs should attend more specifically to helping teens experience themselves as more competent in dealing with social influences. (RAC)

• 11022 West, J.S., Kayser, L., Overton, P., & Saltmarsh, R. (1991). Student perceptions that inhibit the initiation of counseling. The School Counselor, 39, 77-83.

  Students ranked concerns about talking to a stranger, fear that the counselor would pass on private information to others, as the two highest reasons for not going to a counselor. (RAC)

• 11023 Sabatelli, R.M. & Anderson, S.A. (1991). Family system dynamics, peer relationships, and adolescents' psychological adjustment. Family Relations, 40, 363- 369.

  Youth who reported the highest levels of depression were those who felt least supported by their peers and who perceived their parents' marital relationship to be the most dysfunctional. The authors believe that interventions with depressed adolescents must also include attention to the adolescent's inability to find supportive peer relations, and that prosocial peer supports would be valuable for adolescents who have experienced family rejection or neglect. The benefits of strengthening the peer network should not be overlooked. (RAC)

• 11024 Kafka, R.R. & London, P. (1991). Communication in relationships and adolescent substance use: The influence of parents and friends. Adolescence, 26(103), 587-598.

  This article examines the openness of communication in three relationships in teenagers' lives: with mother, father (or parental figure), and closest friend; and the correlation of those relationships with teenagers' use of cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs. Interviews with 37 students revealed that the extent to which adolescents talk openly with parents may influence their substance use, but there was little evidence that openness with a close friend or perceived pressure from friends is related to substance use. (Authors)

• 11025 van Roosmalen, E.H. & McDaniel, S.A. (1992). Adolescent smoking intentions: Gender differences in peer context. Adolescence, 27(105). 87-105.

  Smoking intentions and peer group influences among a sample of 1,689 Grade 8 students from southern Ontario were analyzed for gender-specific correlates. The peer environment was found to be a crucial factor in adolescent smoking behaviour. The authors argue for differential prevention strategies for girls that do not rely on the "macho" peer resistance skills approach. They recommend that prevention efforts 1)acknowledge different reasons girls as compared to boys smoke; 2) dispel myths associated with smoking such as "girls have a harder time quitting than boys;" 3) recognize the same health risks apply to girls as apply to boys; and 4) use group and interpersonal methods rather than individual approaches to help girls quit. (RAC)

• 11026 Varenhorst, B. B. (1985). The adolescent society. In S.E. Gardner (Ed.), Adolescent peer pressure theory, correlates, and program implications for drug abuse prevention (pp. 1-20). Rockville, Maryland: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

  This article is one of four in a monograph supporting peer work. Dr. Varenhorst outlines the myths, relevant theories, and tasks of adolescence. In addition she details the social and cultural factors affecting teens and specifies six needs which have the most impact on adolescents. (RAC)

• 11027 Norem-Hebeisen, A. & Hedin, D. (1985). Influences on adolescent problem behavior: Causes, connections, and contexts. In S.E. Gardner (Ed.), Adolescent peer pressure theory, correlates, and program implications for drug abuse prevention(pp. 21-46) . Rockville, Maryland: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

  The authors outline the wider context of adolescent development and examine the relationship between a number of adolescent problems and the reasons for them. (RAC)

• 11028 Verduyn, C.M., Lord, W., & Forrest, G.C. (1990). Social skills training in schools: An evaluation study. Journal of Adolescence, 13, 3-16.

  A study evaluating the effectiveness of a school-based social skills programme is described. All children in three year bands of an Oxford middle school were screened for behaviour problems. Subjects selected were allocated at random to eight sessions of social skills training with four booster sessions later or to a no treatment control group. Change was assessed by teacher, parent, and self-report measures. Results suggested significant improvement which was persistent over a 6 month period. Implications for school-based social skills programmes are discussed. (Authors)

• 11029 Berenson, S.K. (1988). Peers pressuring peers. Middle School Journal, 20(1), 20.

  A teacher reports on how she uses peer pressure to improve discipline. (Author)

• 11030 Botvin, G.J. (1986). Substance abuse prevention research: Recent developments and future directions. Journal of School Health, 56(9), 369-374.

  Substance abuse continues to be one of the most serious problems facing communities throughout the United States. Existing school-based prevention programs have produced disappointing results when carefully evaluated. However, promising research has been conducted during the past eight years with two new prevention models that focus on the psychosocial factors believed to promote substance abuse. One, the social influence model, is designed to increase adolescents' ability to resist social influences to smoke, drink, or use drugs. The other model, though also designed to increase adolescents' resistance to pro-substance, focuses primary attention on the development of an array of cognitive- behavioral personal and social skills. More than 20 research studies testing programs based on these two prevention models have demonstrated significant reductions in substance use. Though future research is clearly needed, the results of these studies provide considerable cause for optimism. (Author)

• 11031 Newman, I.M. (1984). Capturing the energy of peer pressure: Insights from a longitudinal study of adolescent cigarette smoking. JOSH, 54(4), 146-148.

  The effects of peer pressure on smoking behavior were described by subjects in a longitudinal study in the ninth grade, the 11th grade and 10 years later. Peer pressure was reported in terms of meeting certain desirable image characteristics and not in terms of direct pressure to smoke. Smoking was just one of many ways to create this image. It is suggested that education can incorporate peer pressure in a positive way by considering ways to change the "images" that energize certain behaviors, by introducing the learner to alternative ways to achieve the image and by alerting (immunizing) young people to the manipulative functions of image and peer pressure. (Author)

• 11032 Naginey, J.L. & Swisher, J.D. (1990). To whom would adolescents turn with drug problems? Implications for school professionals. High School Journal, 73(2), 80-85.

  The results of a survey administered to 9,543 teens using the Primary Prevention Awareness Attitude and Usage Scales (PPAUS). Results support the salience of peer relationships in the context of drug abuse. Implications for the survey for peer counselling programs and school based prevention programs are noted. (CS)

• 11033 Brendtro, L.K. (1985). Making caring fashionable: Philosophy and procedures of service learning. Child Care Quarterly, 14(1), 4-13.

  Many traditional education and treatment programs have relegated troubled youth to the narrow role of recipient of care. Yet if such individuals are to develop self-esteem and social responsibility, they must have opportunities to become involved in helping and caring for others. Volunteer service-learning programs offer a powerful means of transforming youth who heretofore have been seen as a societal liability into a valuable asset. This aritcle reviews the philosophy of service learning and outlines specific guidelines for incoroporating these programs into the re-education of troubled youth. (Author)

• 11034 Savin-Williams, R.C. & Berndt, T.J. (????). Friendship and peer relations. In S.S. Feldman & G.R. Elliott (Eds.). At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 277- 307). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

  This chapter discusses peer relationships and the close, intimate friendships with peers that have special significance because of the support provided. The influence of these relationships on teen behaviours and attitudes are discussed. The needs for further research and implications for using peer relations in intervention techniques are discussed. (Author/CS)

• 11035 Lirgg, C.D. & Feltz, D.L. (1990). Teacher versus peer models revisited: Effects on motor performance and self-efficacy. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62(2), 217-224.

  The influence of skilled and unskilled teacher and peer models on motor performance were investigated. Results showed that subjects who watched a skilled model performed better than subjects who watched an unskilled model. There was no effect as a result of whether the model was a peer or a teacher.

• 11036 Patterson, C.J., Vaden, N.A., & Kupersmidt, J.B. (1991). Family background, recent life events and peer rejection during childhood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 8, 347-361.

  Results from a study of 949 elementary school children showed that children who came from certain family backgrounds and who experienced certain life events were rejected by their peers more often than other children. Such things as low income, parental separation or divorce contributed to the probability that a child would be rejected by peers. While not stated by authors, peer programs may help to identify hi- risk children and provide support to reduce likelihood of rejection. (Author/RAC)

• 11037 Brown, B.B., Mounts, N., Lamborn, S.D., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting practices and peer group affiliation in adolescence. Child Development, 64, 2, 467-482.

  Specific parenting practices such as monitoring, encouragement, mutual problem solving, were significantly associated with specific adolescent behaviours and were in turn influential on the types of groups joined by adolescents.

• Lackovicgrgin, K. (1994). Pubertal status, interaction with significant others, and self esteem of adolescent girls. Adolescence, 29, 115, 691-700. Not available for annotation.

• Aseltine, R.H. (1995). A reconsideration of parental and peer influences on adolescent deviance. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 2, 103-121. Estimates of influence of friends are grossly overstated. (RAC)

• Berndt, T.J. & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends' influence on adolescents' adjustment to school. Child Development, 66, 5, 1312-1329. Grade 7 and 8 students deepened friendships when they were characterized by positive features; negative features contributed to decreases in friendships and increases in disruptive behaviours. (RAC)

• Biglan. A., Duncan, T.E., Ary, D.V., & Smolkowski, K. (1995). Peer and parental influences on adolescent tobacco use. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 18, 4, 315-330. Inadequate parenting, parent conflicts and association with deviant peers predicted tobacco use. (RAC)

• Ranson, M.V. (1992). Peer perceptions of adolescent health behaviors. Journal of School Health, 62, 6, 238-242. Traits that adolescents want to develop must be understood in order to design effective health education programs. (RAC)

• Treboux, D., & Buschrossnagel, N.A. (1995). Age differences in parent and peer influences on female sexual behavior. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 5, 4, 469-487. Mother¹s influence on sexual attitudes is strongest in grade 9 and 10, but peer influence becomes stronger in grades 11 and 12. (RAC)

• van Roosmalen, E.H., & McDaniel, S.A. (1992). Adolescent smoking intentions: Gender differences in peer context. Adolescence, 27, 105, 87-105. Smoking prevention programs need to target adolescent females and work to dispel myths they hold about the benefits of smoking. (RAC)

• Vitaro, F., Dobkin, P. L., et Tremblay, R.E. (1994). Programme de prévention des toxicomanies en milieu scolaire. Journal International de Psychologie, 29, 4, 431-452. Les résultats montrent que le programme de prévention a influencé les connaissances au sujet de la cigarette, les attitudes via-à-vis la cigarette et la marijuana ainsi que la consommation d¹alcool et de marijuana. (RAC)

• Wolf, Y., Olenickshemesh, D., Addad, M., Green, D., & Walters, J. (1995). Personal and situational factors in drug use as perceived by kibbutz youth. Adolescence, 30, 120, 909-930. Users assigned equal weight to personal factors and group pressure factors, whereas nonusers only believed pressure factors were influential in initiation of drug use. (RAC)

• Boivin, M., Hymel, S., & Bukowski, W.M. (1995). The roles of social withdrawal, peer rejection, and victimization by peers in predicting loneliness and depressed mood in childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 4, 765-785. Loneliness contributes to children¹s depression and negative peer experiences. (RAC)

• Botvin, G.J., Botvin, E.M., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., and Goldberg, C.J. (1992). The false consensus effect - Predicting adolescents' tobacco use from normative expectations. Psychological Reports, 70, 1, 171-178. Adolescent beliefs about the amount of smoking going on around them play an important role in smoking initiation. (RAC)

• Bauman, K.E., & Ennett, S.T. (1994). Peer influence on adolescent drug use. American Psychologist, 49, 9, 820-822. Peer influence has less importance than normally assumed and smokers were more likely to be isolates than members of social network groups. (RAC)

• Coggans, N., &McKellar, S. (1994). Drug use amongst peers: Peer pressure or peer preference? Drugs, Education, Prevention and Policy, 1, 1, 15-26. Peer influence has wrongly been placed above individual responsibility for choice and motivation in determining the reasons for adolescent drug use. (RAC)

• Crofts, N.,& Herkt, D. (1995). A history of peer-based drug-user groups in Australia. Journal of Drug Issues, 25, 3, 599-616. Report on the profound effect peer-based groups have had in prevention of injection drug use. (RAC)

• Donaldson, S.I. (995). Peer influence on adolescent drug use: A perspective from the trenches of experimental evaluation research. American Psychologist, 50, 9, 801-802. An assessment of the key factors that will assist a peer approach to drug abuse prevention. (RAC)

• Flay, B.R., Hu, F.B., Siddiqui, O., Day, L.E., Hedeker, D., Petraitis, J., Richardson, J., & Sussman, S. (1994). Differential influence of parental smoking and friends' smoking on adolescent initiation and escalation of smoking. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 3, 248-265. Friends¹ smoking has a direct influence on adolescent smoking behaviour whereas parent smoking seems to have only an indirect influence. (RAC)

• Gleaning, A. (1994). Guidelines for school health programs to prevent tobacco use and addiction. Journal of School Health, 64, 9, 353-360. Seven guidelines based on a review of research, theory, and practice in prevention, including policy enforcement, training in social influence and refusal skills, K-12 prevention education, training for teachers, involving parents, support for cessation, and regular program assessment. (RAC)

• Gorman, D.M. (1995). Are school-based resistance skills training programs effective in preventing alcohol misuse? Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 41, 1, 74-98. A solid review of all published reports of the use of resistance skill training shows little or no effect on drinking behavior at follow-up, but the author provides reasons why, and suggest greater involvement of peers in program delivery. (RAC)

• Hamachek, D. (1995). Self-concept and school achievement: Interaction dynamics and a tool for assessing the self-concept component. Journal of Counseling & Development, 73, 4, 419-425. One of the best summaries of self-concept research and includes an inventory to both identify and guide student self-concept development and can be used by peer helpers to help their friends develop more positive views of self and improve academic outcomes. (RAC)

• Hardesty, P.H., & Kirby, K.M. (1995). Relation between family religiousness and drug use within adolescent peer groups. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10, 2, 421-430. Higher levels of family religiousness was associated with lower levels of illicit drug use among peers. (RAC)

• Adrados, J.L.R. (1995). The influence of family, school, and peers on adolescent drug misuse. International Journal of the Addictions, 30, 11, 1407-1423. A comparison of youth in America and Spain examined the stepping-stone or gateway notion of tobacco leading to other drug use. (RAC)

• Shope, J.T., Copeland, L.A., Maharg, R., Dielman, T.E.,& Butchart, A.T. (1993). Assessment of adolescent refusal skills in an alcohol misuse prevention study. Health Education Quarterly, 20, 3, 373-390. Students who had better refusal skills had more misuse knowledge, were less suscepitible to peer pressure, had an internal health locus of control, and had greater self-esteem. (RAC)

• Wintre, M.G. &Crowley, J.M. (1993). The adolescent self-concept: A functional determinant of consultant preference. Journal of Youth and Adolesence, 22,4, 369-383. Younger males rely more on adults for advice than older males and girls. Implications for peer programs: for younger males have more males from upper grades available as peer helpers.(RAC)

• Saxe, S. (June, 1988). Peer influence and learning. Training and Development Journal, 42, 6, 50-53. Moderate levels of peer interaction contributed to improving adult learning and had a more significant effect than providing incentives for learning. (RAC)

• Maierle, J.P. (1973). The politics of supporting paraprofessionals. Professional Psychology, [Missing Data] 313-320. Paraprofessional programs are affected by complex political pressures. The psychologist who plans to support such programs should be aware of these pressures and should develop the techniques needed to deal with them effectively.(Author)

• Tudge, J., &Rogoff, B. ([Missing Date]. Peer influences on cognitive development: Piagetian and Vygotskian perspectives. [Missing Data]. Rationale for the impact childhood peers have on each others's cognitive development.(RAC)

• Webb, N.M. (1985). Verbal interaction and learning in peer-directed groups. Theory into Practice, 24, 32-39. Explains the factors that contribute to student learning in small groups.(RAC)

• HIrsch, B.J., &DuBois, D.L. (1992). The relation of peer social support and psychological symptomatology during the transition to junior high school: A two-year longitudinal analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 3, 333-347. Peer support is crucial for assisting students with transition and change. (RAC)

• Hatch, J.A. (1987). Peer interaction and the development of social competence. Child Study Journal, 17, 3, 169-183. Social competence is defined and research reviewed which contributes the ability of youth to engage in successful interactions with others. (RAC)

• Hopkins, N. (1994). Peer group processes and adolescent health-related behaviour-More than peer group pressure. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 4, 5, 329-345. Peer group pressure is an inadequate account of adolescent smoking and drinking and alternative analysis has valuable implications for health education. (RAC)

• Kafka, R.R.,& London, P. (1991). Communication in relationships and adolescent substance use: The influence of parents and friends. Adolescence, 26, 103, 587-598. The ability to talk openly with at least one parent is associated with lower levels of substance use, but no evidence was found that openness with a close friend or perceived pressure from friends was related to substance use. (RAC)

• Kindermann, T.A., McCollam, T.L.,& Gibson Jr., E. (1995). Peer networks and students' classroom engagement during childhood and adolescence. In K. Wentzel and J. Juvonen (Eds.). Social motivation: Understanding childrens' school adjustment. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Youth social networks have a more powerful influence on motivation than teachers, and changing friendships provide opportunities for youth to learn valuable skills. (RAC)

• Nelson, D.E., Giovino, G.A., Shopland, D.R., Mowery, P.D., Mills, S.P., &Erikson, M.P. (1995). Trends in cigarette smoking among US adolescents, 1974 through 1991. American Journal of Public Health, 85, 1, 34-40. The rate of decline in smoking prevalence has slowed and the authors attribute the slow down to increased tobacco advertising and inadequate tobacco education efforts. (RAC)

• Curtner-Smith, M.E., & MacKinnon-Lewis, C.E. (1994). Family process effects on adolescent males susceptibility to antisocial peer pressure. Family Relations, 43, 4, 462-468. Parenting styles of both fathers and mothers contribute to adolescent willingness to associate with trouble. (RAC)

• Purcell, J.H., Gable, R.K., &Caillard, F. (1994). Attitudes of suburban high school students toward behaviors associated with high-achieving peers: Development and validation of the peer assessment scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54, 2, 383-393. HIgh achieving students were more accepted by older peers than by younger students in grade 9. In selecting peer helpers, it is crucial not to use grades in the middle grades as an exclusive criteria. (RAC)

• Dubow, E.F., Schmidt, D., McBride, J., Edwards, S., &Merk, F.L. (1993). Teaching children to cope with stressful experiences: Initiial implementation and evaluation of a primary prevention program. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 4, 428-440. Children were taught a number of skills associated with the I CAN DO program and an evalution revealed that the grade four students were able to apply the skills to a number of potentially stressful life experiences. (RAC)

• Ambert, A-M. (1994). A qualitative study of peer abuse and its effects: Theoretical and empirical implications. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56,1, 119-130. Peer abuse is more significant than parental abuse, yet it is little researched and has few policy implications.(RAC)

• Dziuba-Leatherman, J. &Finkelhor, D. (1994). How does receiving information about sexual abuse influence boys' perceptions of their risk? Child Abuse &Neglect, 18, 7, 557-568. A study to analyze the controversial aspects of providing prevention education to children.(RAC)

• Weiss, M.R., &Duncan, S.C. (1992). The relationship between physical competence and peer acceptance in sports. Journal of Sport &Exercise Psychology, 14,2, 177-191. When a child perceives him or herself to be good in sports there is a stronger likelihood of peer acceptance and successful peer relations for both boys and girls aged 8-13. (RAC)

• Parker, J.G. &Asher, S.R. (1993). Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood: Links with peer group acceptance and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Developmental Psychology, 29, 4, 611-621. The quality of friendship influences adjustment and acceptance in the peer group. (RAC)

• Newcomb, A.F, & Bagwell, C.L. (1995). Children's friendship relations: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 2, 306-347. Relations between friends are reciprocal and intimate and include more intense social activity, more frequent conflict resolution, and task achievement. (RAC)

• Halpern, A.S. (1993). Quality of life as a conceptual framework for evaluating transition outcomes. Exceptional Children, 59, 6, 486-498. Provides solid basis for both transition perspective and role of peers in quality of life. (RAC)

• Urberg, K.A., Degirmencioglu, S.M., Tolson, J.M., & Hallidayscher, K. (1995). The structure of adolescent peer networks. Developmental Psychology, 31, 4, 540-547. Females were more likely than males to be connected to the school peer network and networks became more exclusive in the higher grades. (RAC)

• Fullerton, C.S., &Ursano, R.J. (1994). Preadolescent peer friendships: A critical contribution to adult social relationships? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 23, 1, 43-63. A review of research that suggests that the ability to develop and sustain friendships during the preadolescent period will effect the ability to gain social support (a strong mediator of stress) in adult life. Implications for peer support training as a way of developing early friendship skills and has strong implication for later life. (RAC)

• Tucker, J.A., &Gladsjo, J.A. (1993). Help-seeking and recovery by problem drinkers. Addictive Behaviors, 18, 5, 529-542. Psychosocial factors (deteriorating interpersonal and work relationships) play a larger role in assisting alcohol users to seek help.(RAC)

• Tucker, J.A., &Sobell, L.C. (January,1992). Influences on help-seeking for drinking problems and on natural recovery without treatment. Behavior Therapist, [missing data], 12-14. Help-seeking is influenced by socio-cultural context and the degree to which symptoms disrupt family, work, and other activities, including interpersonal relationships.(RAC)

• McGuire, A.M. (1994). Helping behaviors in the natural environment: Dimensions and correlates of helping. Personality and Social Psychology, 20, 1, 45-56. Three factors, perceived benefits of helping, frequency of helping, and costs of helping have relevance for helping behavior. Peer programs which include these factors in their training will improve the helping climate.(RAC)

• Staub, E. (1993). The psychology of bystanders, perpetrators, and heroic helpers. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 17, 3, 315-341. Caring, empathy, and moral values lead to heroic helping acts and can reduce national violence. (RAC)

• Bratter, T.E. (1975). Helping those who do not want to help themselves: A Reality Therapy and confrontation orientation. In Bassin, A., Bratter, T.E., &Rachin, R.L. (Eds.). The reality therapy reader. NY: Harper &Row (23-30). Roles for the psychotherapist are described in dealing with reluctant clients; implications for working with any troubled youth.(RAC)

• Daubman, K.A., &Lehman, T.C. (1993). The effects of receiving help: Gender differences in motivation and performance. Sex Roles, 28, 11-12, 693-707. Men who received unsolicited help did poorer on a task than men who did not; whereas women did better on the task. Help for men seems to threaten their self-esteem.(RAC)

• Cheuk, W.H. &Rosen, S. (1993). How efficacious, caring Samaritans cope when their help is rejected unexpectedly. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social, 12, 2, 99-112. This study has implications for peer supervision because they found that when helpers are rejected it can cause negative reactions which need ventilation. (RAC)

• Saunders, S.M., Resnick, M.D., Hoberman, H.M., &Blum, R.W. (1994). Formal help-seeking behavior of adolescents identifying themselves as having mental health problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 5, 718-728. Adolescents who stated they talked with someone informally about their problems were more likely to actually obtain help. Peer helpers can play a significant role in helping their friends gain the help they need.(RAC)

• Leira, A. (1994). Concepts of caring - loving, thinking, and doing. Social Sciences Review, 68, 2, 185-201. Not available for annotation.

• May, C. (1993). Resistance to peer group pressure: An inadequate basis for alcohol education. Health Education Research, 8,2, 159-165. Peer group pressure is examined and deemed an inadequate explanation for drinking behaviour. Implications for interventions both in and out of school are discussed. (RAC)

• Birkimer, J.C., Johnston, P.L., & Berry, M.M. (1993). Guilt and help from friends: Variables related to healthy behavior. The Journal of Social Psychology, 133 (5), 683-692. The support of friends makes a significant contribution to choosing healthy behaviours. (RAC)

• Wyman, P.A., Cowen, E.L., Work, W.C., &Kerley, J.H. (1993). The role of children&339;s future expectations in self-system functioning and adjustment to life stress: A prospective study of urban at-risk children. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 4, 649-661. Affirms resilience research and adds to support that youth need developmental activities such as peer work in order to positively structure their environments.(RAC)

• Noll, R.B., Bukowski, W.M., Davies, W.H., Koontz, K.,& Kulkarni, R. (1993). Adjustment in the peer system of adolescents with cancer: A two-year study. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 18, 3, 351-364. Although teens with cancer may appear more isolated, small sample revealed no differences in social acceptance or feelings. (RAC)

• La Greca, A.M. (1993). Social skills training with children: Where do we go from here? Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 2, 288-298. Comprehensive overview of social skills training with one conclusion being the importance of children's friendships for their emotional development and how improving peer friendships should be a goal of social skills training. (RAC)

• Peterson, J.L. (1994). Evaluating teenage pregnancy prevention and other social programs. Family Planning Perspectives, 26, 3, 116. Not available for annotation.

• Danoff, N.L. (1994). Risk factors for dropping out of a parenting education program. Child Abuse and Neglect, 18, 7, 599-606. Not available for annotation.

• Angelopoulos, M. (1993). International and Canadian students choice of helping source: It depends. Journal of College Student Development, 34, 5, 377-378. Not available for annotation.

• Lu, L. (1994). University transition: Major and minor life stressors, personality characteristics and mental health. Psychological Medicine, 24, 1, 81-87. A study of students in Taiwan that dealing with daily hassles could lead to depression; having someone to talk with helped to reduce symptoms and stressors. (RAC)

• Swisher, J.D., Baker, S.B., Barnes, J.A., Doebler, M.K., Hadleman, D.E.,& Kophazi, K.M. (1993). An evaluation of student assistance programs in Pennsylvania. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 39, 1, 1-18. Students in schools with programs were more likely to talk to their friends about the risks of smoking. (RAC)

• Wentzel, K.R.,& Erdley, C.A. (1993). Strategies for making friends: Relations to social behavior and peer acceptance in early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 29, 5, 819-826. Prosocial behavior as well as knowledge of how to and how not to make friends were imporant factors in peer acceptance. (RAC)

• Entwisle, D.R., &Alexander, K.L. (1993). Entry into schools: The beginning school transition and educational stratification in the United States. Annual Review of Sociology, 19, 401-423. Transitions increase children's receptivity to internal and external forces providing evidence of potential for dropout prevention. (RAC)

• Falchikov, N. (1993). Group process analysis: Self and peer assessment of working together in a group. Educational & Training Technology International, 30, 3, 275-284. Self and peer assessment can be used effectively to deal with the problem of evaluation of group work. (RAC)

• Flett, G.L, Blankstein, K.R., Hicken, D.J., & Watson, M.S. (1995). Social support and help-seeking in daily hassles versus major life events stress. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25, 1, 49-58. Support is less necessary to adjust to daily hassles, but is essential for managing more stressful life events. (RAC)

• Chen, X.Y., Li, Z.Y., & Rubin, K.H. (1995). Social functioning and adjustment in Chinese children. Developmental Psychology, 31, 4, 531-539. In China 8 to 10 year olds described as shy or sensitive were accepted by peers, seen as competent and viewed as leaders, but were rejected for similar behavior at age 12. (RAC)

• Chen, X., Rubin, K.H.,& Sun, Y. (1992). Social reputation and peer relationships in Chinese and Canadian children: A cross-cultural study. Child Development, 63, 6, 1336-1343. Leadership qualities were associated with peer acceptance in both cultures, and shyness was associated with peer acceptance in Chinese culture. (RAC)

• Capner, M., &Caltabiano, M.L. (1993). Factors affecting the progression towards burnout: A comparison of professional and volunteer counsellors. Psychological Reports, 73, 555-561. Although differences exist between professional and volunteer counsellors, their similarities are close enough that volunteers are equally likely to experience burnout. (RAC)

• Harmon, M.A. (1993). Reducing the risk of drug involvement among early adolescents: An evaluation of DARE. Evaluation Review, 17, 2, 221-239. DARE program evaluation yields mixed results and author suggests involving peers rather than police as program delivery agents. (RAC)

• Kinderman, T.A. (1993). Natural peer groups as contexts for individual development: The case of children's motivation in school. Developmental Psychology, 29, 6, 970-977. Natural peer groups have power to promote or undermine children¹s motivation in school. (RAC)

• Kinoshita, Y. (1993). Developmental changes in antecedents and outcomes of peer conflict among preschool children: A longitudinal study. Japanese Psychological Research, 35, 2, 57-69. As they got older, Japanese children seem to learn better negotiation strategies and learn how to resolve conflicts peacefully. (RAC)

• Newman, R.S., and Schwager, M.T. (1993). Students' perceptions of the teacher and classmates in relation to reported help seeking in math class. The Elementary School Journal, 94, 1, 1-17. Students would typically not seek help if they perceived their request as being subject to social comparisons (being seen as dumb), yet they were likely to ask teachers for help if they perceived themselves in a good relationship with the teacher. (RAC)

• King, A., Wold, B., Tudor-Smith, C., &Harel, Y. (1996). The health of youth: A cross-national survey. Denmark: World Health Organization (European Series No. 69). A report on the attitudes and behaviours of children around the world with regards to smoking, drinking, exercise, diet, health and illness, injuries, and school and social life. Provides an excellent support document for peers helping peers on a variety of issues. (RAC)

• Chandler, L.A., &Gallagher, R.P. (1996). Developing a taxonomy for problems seen at a university counseling center. Measurement and Evauation in Counseling and Development, 29, 1, 4-12. A solid study revealing the types of problems experienced by university students placed relationship problems as the most frequently occuring difficulty. This provides support for using peer helpers at the university level to assist throughout the campus in relationship skill training. (RAC)

• National Crime Prevention Council. (1995). Mobilizing political will and community responsibility to prevent youth crime. Ottawa, ON: Author. A report on successful programs to combat and prevent crime. Several example of youth helping youth programs are described. (RAC)

• B.C. Youth Council. (1992). Youth talks: Your views, your ideas, your future. Victoria, BC: B.C. Youth Council. A comprehensive youth survey where opinions and solutions are described on substance abuse, physical and mental health, abuse, crime, racism, multiculturalism, education and dropouts, recreation and leisure activities. A strong empirical support for peer helping. (RAC)

• National Youth in Care Network. (1996). Into the hands of youth: Youth in and from care identify healing needs. Ottawa, ON: Author. A report based on interviews with youth in care who participated in focus groups in five provinces in Canada. Young people who lived on the street and have extensive experience with government, welfare, and authority systems provided their views. Peer support was described as being highly benefial for themselves and others. (RAC)

• Bullock, J.R. (1993). Children's loneliness and their relationships with family and peers. Family Relations, 42, 1, 46-49. (Not available for annotation).

• Mcauliffe, T.J. (1994). Status rules of behavior in scenarios of peer learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 2, 163-172. (Not available for annotation).

• Youniss, J. (1992). Friendship in adolescence. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 13, 1, 59-66. (Not available for annotation).

• Doyle, J.R. (1994). Self and peer appraisal in higher education. Higher Education, 28, 2, 241-264. (Not available for annotation).

• Lagemann, E.C. (1993). Creating communities: Caring for adolescents. Teachers College Record, 94, 3, 453-458. (Not available for annotation).

• Birkimer, J.C. (1993). Guilt and help from friends: Variables related to healthy behavior. Journal of Social Psychology, 133, 5, 683-692. (Not available for annotation).

• Wang, M.Q. (1995). Family and peer influences on smoking behavior among American [Missing Data]. Journal of Adolescent Health, 16, 3, 200-203. (Not available for annotation).

• Moane, G. (1993). Dependency and caring needs among the elderly. Irish Journal of Psychology, 14, 1, 189-203. (Not available for annotation).

• Sherer, M.L. (1993). No longer just child's play: School liability under Title IX for peer sexual harassment. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 141, 5, 2119-2168. (Not available for annotation).

• Meyer, S.L. (1991). Gender and relationships: Beyond the peer group. American Psychologist, 46, 5, 537. (Not available for annotation).

• Lirgg, C.D. (1991). Teacher versus peer models revisited: Effects on motor performance and [Missing Data]. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62, 2, 217-224. (Not available for annotation).

• Parke, R.D., &Ladd, G.W. (Eds.) (1992). Family - peer relationships: Modes of linkage. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. (Not available for annotation).

• Dielman, T.E., Kloska, D.D., Leech, S.L, Schulenberg, J.E., & Shope, J.T. (1992). Susceptibility to peer pressure as an explanatory variable for the differential effectiveness of an alcohol misuse prevention program in elementary schools. Journal of School Health, 62, 6, 233-237. A school-based alcohol misuse prevention program had differential effects on student susceptibility to peer pressure, depending on prior experience with alcohol. The results support using social skills to resist social pressure to use or misuse alcohol. Realistic norms may be just as important as behavioural skill training.

• Gross, J. & McCaul, M.E. (1992). An evaluation of a psychoeducational and substance abuse risk reduction intervention for children of substance abusers. Journal of Community Psychology, Special Issue, 75-87. A social support and social skills building model that lasted 13 weeks was used with urban adolescents who were children of substance abusing parents. At post-test and one year follow-up there was little evidence of the effectiveness of the intervention. Explanations are provided, including too little, too late; testing did not measure the actual impact, and study limitations. (RAC).

• Pabon, E., Rodriguez, O., & Gurin, G. (1992). Clarifying peer relations and delinquency. Youth and Society, 24, 2, 149-165. The authors propose that delinquent youth acting within a peer group may only serve to reinforce delinquent behavior since the purpose of relationships in a group with this composition is often quite different than non-delinquent group relations. The individual delinquent might be a better target for behavior change along with the creation of supportive non-delinquent group and community contacts. (RAC)

• Iannotti, R.J., &Bush, P.J. (1992). Perceived vs. actual friends use of alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, and cocaine: Which has the most influence? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 3, 375-389. Perceptions of friend use, perceptions of family use, and actual use of classmates were better predictors of substance use than friends actual use. (RAC)

• Santelli, J.S., &Beilenson, P. (1992). Risk factors for adolescent sexual behavior, fertility, and sexually transmitted diseases. Journal of School Health, 62, 7, 271-279. A review of risk factors with the view that peer education programs to promote contraception or protection from STD may be promising interventions. (RAC)

• Andersson, N., & Wold, B. (1992). Parental and peer influences on leisure-time physical activity in young adolescents. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63, 4, 341-348. The findings indicate that, by serving as models and supporters, significant others, including friends and parents, have an important impact in promoting physical activity in young adolescents. (RAC)

• Raniseski, J.M., &Sigelman, C.K. (1992). Conformity, peer pressure, and adolescent receptivity to treatment for substance abuse: A research note. Journal of Drug Education, 22, 3, 185-194. The authors believe that success of treatment for adolescents, including their willingness to seek treatment, may be influenced by how adolescents feel about being in treatment and the link between their orientation toward treatment and their orientation toward their peers. (RAC)

• Connolly, G.M., Casswell, S., Stewart, J., &Silva, P.A. (1992). Drinking context and other influences on the drinking of 15-year-old New Zealanders. British Journal of Addiction, 87, 1029-1036. Peer approval had more influence on drinking that parental approval/disapproval. (RAC)

• Aaby, P.G. (1987). An analysis and historical perspective of natural helpers: Building on its strengths. (Doctoral dissertation, Seattle University, 1987). Dissertation Abstracts International, 48, 1395. Fifty coordinators and trainers from Natural Helpers programs in Washington were surveyed to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the peer program. (RAC)

• Magen, Z., and Aharoni, R. (1991). Adolescents contributing toward others: Relationship to positive experiences and transpersonal commitment. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 31, 2, 126-143. Results from this study support the contention that the ability to experience happiness and meaning in life was greater among those 10th-12th grade students who were involved in community service activities. (RAC)

• Glasgow, R.E., and McCaul, K.D. (1985). Social and personal skills training programs for smoking prevention: Critique and directions for future research. National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph Series, 63, 50-66. The authors review the advantages of general and personal skills training in the prevention of smoking relative to more narrowly defined programs, and they identify the critical components of skills training and the factors moderating its effectiveness. (PDC)

• Inderbitzen-Pisaruk, H., and Foster, S.L. (1990). Adolescent friendships and peer acceptance: Implications for social skills training. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 4, 425-439. The authors argue that social skills training programs should expand their focus to include training skills in cooperation, sharing and helping, displaying loyalty, initiating activities, and developing intimacy; all the kinds of skills associated with peer helper training. (RAC)